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The peyote ( ; Lophophora williamsii ) is a small, spineless which contains psychoactive alkaloids, particularly . Peyote is a Spanish word derived from the peyōtl (), meaning "caterpillar cocoon", from a root peyōni, "to glisten".Other sources, apparently incorrectly, translate the Nahuatl word as "divine messenger".

(2025). 9780881924985, Timber Press.
p. 396.
(2025). 9780806134536, University of Oklahoma Press.
p. 246. See in Wiktionary.

It is native to southern , primarily found in desert scrub and limestone-rich areas of northern and , particularly in the Chihuahuan Desert at elevations of 100–1500 meters. It flowers from March to May, and sometimes as late as September. Its flowers are pink or white, with anthers (like ). It is a small, spineless cactus that grows in clusters, produces edible fruits, and contains psychoactive alkaloids—primarily mescaline—at concentrations of about 0.4% when fresh and up to 6% when dried.

Peyote is a slow-growing cactus that can be cultivated more rapidly through techniques such as grafting, and while wild populations in regions like south Texas have declined due to harvesting, cultivation, and the use of alternatives like San Pedro are being explored as potential conservation approaches.

It has been used for over 5,000 years by Indigenous peoples of the Americas for ceremonial, , and folk medicine purposes. Its effects last up to 12 hours. The Native American Church considers ingestion of peyote a sacrament and uses it in all-night healing ceremonies to connect with the spiritual world. Native American Church members often personify peyote as a divine spirit akin to . In () culture, peyote is considered the soul of their religion and a visionary that connects them to their principal deities — corn, , peyote, and the . Peyote and its psychoactive component mescaline are generally controlled substances worldwide, but many laws—including in Canada and the United States—exempt its use in authentic Native American religious ceremonies, with U.S. federal law and some states allowing such ceremonial use regardless of race.


Description
The various species of the genus grow low to the ground and they often form groups with numerous, crowded shoots. The blue-green, yellow-green or sometimes reddish-green shoots are mostly flattened spheres with sunken shoot tips. They can reach heights of and diameters of . There are often significant, vertical ribs consisting of low and rounded or hump-like bumps. From the cusp arises a tuft of soft, yellowish or whitish woolly hairs. Spines are absent. Flowers are pink or white to slightly yellowish, sometimes reddish. They open during the day, are from long, and reach a diameter from .

The cactus produces flowers sporadically; these are followed by small edible pink fruit. The club-shaped to elongated, fleshy fruits are bare and more or less rosy colored. At maturity, they are brownish-white and dry. The fruits do not burst open on their own and they are between long. They contain black, pear-shaped seeds that are 1 to 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide. The seeds require hot and humid conditions to germinate. Peyote contains a large spectrum of alkaloids. The principal one is mescaline for which the content of Lophophora williamsii is about 0.4% fresh (undried) and 3–6% dried.


Taxonomy
French botanist Charles Antoine Lemaire described the species as Echinocactus williamsii in 1845. It was placed in the new genus Lophophora in 1894 by American botanist John Merle Coulter.


Distribution and habitat
L. williamsii is native to southern , mainly distributed in . In the United States, it grows in Southern Texas. In Mexico, it grows in the states of Chihuahua, , Nuevo León, and in the north to San Luis Potosi and . It is primarily found at elevations of and exceptionally up to in the Chihuahuan desert, but is also present in the milder climate of Tamaulipas. Its habitat is primarily in desert scrub, particularly thorn scrub in Tamaulipas. It is common on or near hills.


Constituents
Peyote contains a variety of including , , , and , among others. In terms of total alkaloid content, mescaline makes up 30%, pellotine 17%, anhalonidine 14%, and hordenine 8%. Other major alkaloids include , , , , , O-methylanhalonidine. is a minor constituent, while , , , and are trace constituents. and are also present in peyote. More than 50different alkaloids have been isolated from peyote, but many of them in only minor or trace amounts.
(1985). 9783642701306, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.


Cultivation
Peyote is extremely slow growing. Cultivated specimens grow considerably faster, sometimes taking less than three years to go from seedling to mature flowering adult. More rapid growth can be achieved by grafting peyote onto mature San Pedro root stock. The top of the above-ground part of the cactus, the crown, consists of disc-shaped buttons. These are cut above the roots and sometimes dried. When done properly, the top of the root forms a callus and the root does not rot. When poor harvesting techniques are used, however, the entire plant dies. Currently in South Texas, peyote grows naturally but has been over-harvested, to the point that the state has listed it as an endangered species. Cultivation is an important conservation tool for this particular species. Promoting San Pedro as a Peyote substitute may act as an intervention to reduce Peyote consumption.


Uses

Psychoactivity and folk medicine
When used for its psychoactive properties, common doses for pure mescaline range from roughly 200 to 400 mg. This translates to a dose of roughly 10 to 20 g of dried peyote buttons of average potency; however, potency varies considerably between samples, making it difficult to measure doses accurately without first extracting the mescaline. The concentration of mescaline is typically highest at the sides of the peyote button. The effects last about 10 to 12 hours. Peyote is reported to trigger rich visual or auditory effects (see ) and spiritual or philosophical insights.

In addition to psychoactive use, some Native American tribes use the plant in folk medicine. They employ peyote for varied ailments. Although uncommon, use of peyote and mescaline has been associated with poisoning. Peyote contains the (also called peyocactin).


History
In 2005, researchers used radiocarbon dating and alkaloid analysis to study two specimens of peyote buttons found in digs from a site called Shumla Cave No. 5 on the Rio Grande in Texas. The results dated the specimens to between 3780 and 3660 . Alkaloid extraction yielded approximately 2% of the alkaloids including mescaline in both samples. This indicates that native North Americans were likely to have used peyote since at least 5500 years ago.

Specimens from a burial cave in west central Coahuila, Mexico have been similarly analyzed and dated to 810 to 1070 CE.

From earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by indigenous peoples, such as the Lumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners, 1902 of northern Mexico and by various Native American tribes, native to or relocated to the Southern Plains states of present-day and Texas. Its usage was also recorded among various Southwestern Athabaskan-language tribal groups. The , the , and Lipan Apache were the source or first practitioners of in the regions north of present-day Mexico. They were also the principal group to introduce peyote to newly arrived migrants, such as the and from the Northern Plains. The religious, ceremonial, and healing uses of peyote may date back over 2000 years.

Under the auspices of what came to be known as the Native American Church, in the 19th century, American Indians in more widespread regions to the north began to use peyote in religious practices, as part of a revival of native spirituality. Its members refer to peyote as "the sacred medicine", and use it to combat spiritual, physical, and other social ills. Concerned about the drug's psychoactive effects, between the 1880s and 1930s, U.S. authorities attempted to ban Native American religious rituals involving peyote, including the . Today the Native American Church is one among several religious organizations to use peyote as part of its religious practice. Some users claim the drug connects them to God.

Traditional Navajo belief or ceremonial practice did not mention the use of peyote before its introduction by the neighboring . The Navajo Nation now has the most members of the Native American Church.

Since 1846, the official Mexican Pharmacopoeia recommended the use of peyote extract in “microdose” as a tonic for the heart.

John Raleigh Briggs (1851–1907) was the first to draw scientific attention of the Western scientific world to peyote.{{cite journal %2FBF02862854 | doi=10.1007/BF02862854 | title=Early peyote research an interdisciplinary study | year=1973 | last1=Bruhn | first1=Jan G. | last2=Holmstedt | first2=Bo | journal=Economic Botany | volume=28 | issue=4 | pages=353–390 | s2cid=6988545 }} described Anhalonium lewinii in 1888. British sexologist self experimented with it on 1896, publishing details in 1898."Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise". The Contemporary Review. LXXIII. 1898. conducted self experiments on its effects in 1897. Daniel Perrine, "Visions of the Night: Western Medicine Meets Peyote, 1887–1899" , in The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research, Vol. 2, 2001, p.42, accessed 15 Nov 2009 Similarly, Carl Sofus LumholtzLumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners (1902) studied and wrote about the use of peyote among the Indians of Mexico. Lumholtz also reported that, lacking other intoxicants, Texas Rangers captured by Union forces during the American Civil War soaked peyote buttons in water and became "intoxicated with the liquid".Lumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners (1902), p.358


Adverse reactions
A study published in 2007 found no evidence of long-term cognitive problems related to peyote use in Native American Church ceremonies, but researchers stressed their results may not apply to those who use peyote in other contexts.Halpern JH, Sherwood AR, Hudson JI, Yurgelun-Todd D, Pope HG Jr. "Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans." Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58(8):624–631. A four-year large-scale study of who regularly ingested peyote found only one case where peyote was associated with a in an otherwise healthy person; other psychotic episodes were attributed to peyote use in conjunction with pre-existing substance abuse or mental health problems.Bergman RL (1971). "Navajo peyote use: its apparent safety," Amer J Psychiat 128(6):695–69951–55. Later research found that those with pre-existing mental health issues are more likely to have adverse reactions to peyote.Inaba, D.S. & Cohen, W.E. (2004). Uppers, Downers, All Arounders. (pp. 229–230, 232). Oregon: CNS Publications, Inc. Peyote use does not appear to be associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (a.k.a. "flashbacks") after religious use.Halpern, J. H. (1996). "The use of hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction." Addiction Research, 4(2);177–189. Peyote also does not seem to be associated with physical dependence, but some users may experience psychological dependence.Hyman, S. E. & Malenka, R. C. (2001). "Addiction and the brain: The neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence." Neuroscience. 2;696

Peyote can have strong effects, and one death has been attributed to esophageal bleeding caused by vomiting after peyote ingestion in a Native American patient with a history of alcohol abuse.K B Nolte and R E Zumwalt. "Fatal peyote ingestion associated with Mallory-Weiss lacerations." West J Med. 1999 Jun; 170(6): 328. Peyote is also known to cause potentially serious variations in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and .Nole and Zumwalt 1999

Research into the natives of central-western Mexico, who have taken peyote regularly for an estimated 1,500 years or more, found no evidence of chromosome damage in either men or women.Dorrance; Janiger; and Teplitz (1975), "Effect of peyote on human chromosomes: Cytogenic study of the Huichol Indians of northern Mexico." JAMA 234:299–302.

According to a statement made by in 1916, a member of the tribe, the use of Peyote had been the direct cause of death among 25 in last two years.


Cultural significance

Wixarika (Huichol) culture
The religion consists of four principal : Corn, Kayumarie (Blue Deer), Hikuri (Peyote), and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God. Schaefer has interpreted this to mean that peyote is the soul of their religious culture and a that opens a pathway to the other deities.Stacy B. Schaefer, Peter T. Furst. People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival. UNM Press, 1997. Pg 52–53 File:Arte Huichol A.JPG File:MaskNecklacesTep.JPG File:Huichol-Fadenbild.jpg File:Huichol Trabajando.JPG


Religion

Native American Church
Peyote is considered sacramental and sacred in the Native American Church, also known as Peyotism. It is used in rituals for "a closer understanding of the spiritual world" and to commune with God and the spirits (including the deceased) in order to receive spiritual power, guidance, reproof, and healing. To many followers, peyote itself is personified as "Peyote Spirit", considered to be either God's equivalent for the Indians to for mainstream Christians, or Jesus himself.

Peyote is consumed during an all-night healing ceremony inside a , a traditional Navajo building, or a . The ritual starts around 8 P.M Saturday, and includes , , sacramental eating of peyote, water rites, and . It concludes with a communion breakfast on Sunday morning.


Legality

United Nations

Canada
Mescaline is listed as a Schedule III controlled substance under the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, but peyote is specifically exempt. laws-lois.justice.gc.ca, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act – S.C. 1996, c. 19 (SCHEDULE III), accessed 26 Feb 2020 Possession and use of peyote plants is legal. cbc.ca; CBC News: Psychedelic use spreads in B.C. native community, accessed 15 Aug 2016.


United States
Non-drug uses of peyote in religious ceremonies by the Native American Church and its members is exempt from registration. This law has been codified as a in the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, and made part of the in Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh, (5th Cir. 1991);James W.H. McCord, Sandra McCord, and C. Suzanne Bailey, Criminal and Procedure for the Paralegal: A Systems Approach, p. 178–179 (4th ed. Delmar Cengage 2012) it is also in administrative law at the which states for "Special Exempt Persons":
Section 1307.31 Native American Church. The listing of peyote as a controlled substance in Schedule I does not apply to the nondrug use of peyote in bona fide religious ceremonies of the Native American Church, and members of the Native American Church so using peyote are exempt from registration. Any person who manufactures peyote for or distributes peyote to the Native American Church, however, is required to obtain registration annually and to comply with all other requirements of law.

U.S. v. Boyll, 774 F.Supp. 1333 (D.N.M. 1991) addresses this racial issue specifically and concludes:

For the reasons set out in this Memorandum Opinion and Order, the Court holds that, pursuant to 21 C.F.R. § 1307.31 (1990), the classification of peyote as a Schedule I controlled substance, see 21 U.S.C. § 812(c), Schedule I(c)(12), does not apply to the importation, possession or use of peyote for 'bona fide' ceremonial use by members of the Native American Church, regardless of race.

Following the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments of 1994, United States (and many ) protects the , possession, and cultivation of peyote as part of " religious ceremonies" the federal statute is the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, codified at , "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons. US v. Boyll expanded permitted use to all persons engaged in traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race. All US states with the exception of Idaho, Utah, and Texas allow usage by non-native, non-enrolled persons in the context of ceremonies of the Native American Church. Some states such as Arizona additionally exempt any general bona fide religious activity or spiritual intent. US jurisdictions enacted these specific statutory exemptions in reaction to the US Supreme Court's decision in Employment Division v. Smith, , which held that laws prohibiting the use of peyote that do not specifically exempt religious use nevertheless do not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Though use in Native American Church ceremonies or traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race, is legal under US federal law and additional uses are legal under some state laws, peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance.

The US military prohibits inductees from enlistment for prior drug usage, however past usage of peyote is permissible if found to be used in accordance with Native American cultural practices.


See also


Further reading
  • Calabrese, Joseph D. "The Therapeutic Use of Peyote in the Native American Church" Chapter 3 in Vol. 1 of Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogens as Treatments, Michael J. Winkelman and Thomas B. Roberts (editors) (2007). Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
  • Dawson, Alexander S. 2018. The Peyote Effect: From the Inquisition to the War on Drugs. University of California Press, 2018.
  • Jay, Mike. 2019. Mescaline: A Global History of the First Psychedelic. Yale University Press
  • Feeney, Kevin. "The Legal Basis for Religious Peyote Use." Chapter 13 in Vol 1 of Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogens as Treatments, Michael J. Winkelman and Thomas B. Roberts (editors) (2007). Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
  • Baggot, Matthew J. A Note on the Safety of Peyote when Used Religiously. Council on Spiritual Practices, 1996.
  • Labate, Beatriz; Cavnar, Clancy: Peyote: History, Tradition, Politics, and Conservation. Praeger, 2016.
  • Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants, Enthnopharmacology and Its Applications 1998/2005, Rochester, Vermont, Park Street Press,
  • Pollan, Michael 2021 This Is Your Mind on Plants © 2021 Penguin Books


External links

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